This short study presents an update of the petroglyphs (focussing on cupules) recorded by my wife Elles and me at the rock art site of Cerro La Cal, Lambayeque, northern Peru. Also a selection of rock art sites featuring cupules in the Desert Andes is included.
By Maarten van Hoek
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The Cupules of Cerro La Cal
(and Beyond)
Lambayeque, Peru
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(Including an Update of Cerro La Cal)
Maarten van Hoek
Introduction
Cupules are among the oldest known forms of rock art and most likely they also are the most frequently occurring rock art motif across the globe. This is possibly due to its simplicity, as cupules are easy to manufacture. Cupules comprise hemispherical depressions ground or hammered into the rock surface. They must have a noticeable depth and therefore many superficially pecked out dots or discs are not considered to represent true cupules. Cupules may also not be too small in diameter (then they are simply called dots) or too large (then they are called basins). Also ignored here are the hollow depressions that have been used to grind food or other stuff (such features are often called mortars).
Indeed, every inhabited continent has its share of cupules, but they are often most irregularly distributed across an area. This is also the case in the Desert Andes, the extremely dry desert in the coastal strip west of the High Andes in South America. There are numerous rock art sites, many of which my wife Elles and I have surveyed, and a number of sites in this area feature cupules (excluding all cupules that serve as internal decoration to abstract or biomorphic petroglyphs). Major rock art sites only have one or very few panels with cupules-only.
This study will first focus on cupules that we recorded at the rock art site of Cerro La Cal in the Reque-Chancay Basin of northern Peru. After that, a brief summary of sites with cupule-rocks recorded in the Desert Andes will be presented, keeping in mind that this list only involves a selection with a limited number of entries (not all rocks bearing cupules are known to me).
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Cerro La Cal
Cerro La Cal is located about 40 km east of the city of Chiclayo in northern Peru (thus about 53 km inland (Figure 1). It is found on a rather steep, conical hill (see Cover Photo) about 1.5 km north of the Río Chancay (Figure 2). Most petroglyphs are found on outcrops (and some boulders) at the craggy top (at 167 m O.D.) of the hill, offering wide views across the valley. Only a few (detached) decorated boulders are found on the slopes or at the base of the hill.
Figure 1. Map of the Reque-Chancay Basin showing the locations of Cerro La Cal (Site 1) Cerro Mal Paso (Site 2), Cerro Mulato (Site 3). Map © by Maarten van Hoek, based on the map © by OpenStreetMap – Contributors.
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Click on any illustration to see an enlargement
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Figure 2. Looking south towards Cerro La Cal: CCA1. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.
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History of Recording
Cerro La Cal is located very near the main road from Chiclayo to Chongoyape and is thus easily reached, disregarding the very steep gradient of the slopes of the small hill and its tricky gravelly slopes. Yet, its petroglyphs were only rather recently recorded. Indeed, the petroglyphs of Cerro La Cal were first recorded in 2003 by archaeologist Ignacio Alva Meneses. Shortly after his survey, a total of 32 panels with petroglyphs were reported in a publication by Ignacio Alva and Renzo Ventura in 2004 (not in 2007 [typo], as is stated by Jean Guffroy [2009: 66]). Guffroy published a photographic impression of the site, accompanied by a short text (2009).
My wife and I surveyed the site in 2011 and recorded 56 panels. We returned a year later and then were fortunate to locate more rock art. Altogether we recorded 63 panels with petroglyphs at Site CCA1. I included many photographs of the rock art panels at this site in my book about the rock art of the Reque-Chancay Basin (Van Hoek 2012), but the new finds made in 2012 were not included in the book. Therefore, I offer the interested reader a (very) concise summary of what we have recorded at Cerro La Cal – Site 1, often only referring – when possible – to my 2012-book (the illustrations in my book are not numbered; page-numbers will be provided instead). My 2012-book is gratis available at ResearchGate.
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Concise “Inventory” of Cerro La Cal #1
During our surveys in November 2011 we recorded no less than 56 panels with petroglyphs at site Cerro La Cal #1 (CCA1), all of which (except CCA1-053, 054 and 055) are illustrated in my 2012-book. We returned in August 2012 and recorded seven new panels, bringing the total to 63. Ignacio Alva recorded at least one panel that we did not see ( CCA1-060) bringing the grand total of decorated panels at CCA1 to 64. However, I will not be surprised when more rock art shows up during an extensive scientific survey by professionals. Only a very brief description of the most important petroglyphs on each panel will be given (minor markings – such as instances of random hacking – will be ignored). No scales or orientations are available.
CCA1-001: Frontally depicted and outlined (male?) anthropomorph with facial features. Match-stick anthropomorph? Outlined figure and several pecked lines. Van Hoek 2012: 229.
CCA1-002: Outlined abstract (?) petroglyph. Van Hoek 2012: 229.
CCA1-003: Very small match-stick anthropomorph. Two pecked lines? Van Hoek 2012: 230.
CCA1-004: Small, simple equal-armed cross (on a smaller block resting on CCA1-003). Van Hoek 2012: 230.
CCA1-005: Serpentine motif and a possible “head-and-neck” image (also on a smaller block resting on CCA1-003). Van Hoek 2012: 230.
CCA1-006: Rather complex pattern of short angular grooves, next to an area of very course pecking, possibly representing a biomorphic petroglyph. Van Hoek 2012: 230.
CCA1-007: Two spirals connected by a short, straight groove. Van Hoek 2012: 231.
CCA1-008: Complex pattern of short, straight grooves (a biomorph?). Van Hoek 2012: 231.
CCA1-009: Three or four small cupules and a possible (much weathered) serpentine groove and some more faint markings (see Figure 3 on page 8). Van Hoek 2012: 231.
CCA1-010: Panel A: Very complex pattern of deeply executed grooves and some six – often very large and deep – cupules (only one enclosed by the pattern of grooves) and a possibly intentionally inverted head-motif. Further up is petroglyph possibly depicting an outlined animal in an upright position next to two possible cupules (see Figure 4). Panel B: Very complex pattern of spirals and grooves enclosing a small head-motif. Van Hoek 2012: 234.
CCA1-011: A straight groove and some more simple markings. Van Hoek 2012: 235.
CCA1-012: An irregular serpentine groove; a simple angular spiral and a circular area with a short “tail” (a ring-mark that has been pecked-off?). Van Hoek 2012: 235.
CCA1-013: Pattern of mainly curved grooves (a biomorph?). Van Hoek 2012: 235.
CCA1-014: According to Guffroy (2009: Fig. 91) the hole in this panel is an anthropic cupule (2009: 66). However, I prefer to label it as dubious, as it may well be a natural hole. Van Hoek 2012: 235.
CCA1-015: Vulva-motif (with internal cupule) attached to a ring with central cupule. Confusing pattern of grooves, possibly depicting an outlined anthropomorphic figure. One possible (framed) cupule and three kidney-shaped depressions. Van Hoek 2012: 236.
CCA1-016: Match-stick anthropomorphic figure with raised arms. Pecked groove ending in a faint circle. Van Hoek 2012: 236 – 237.
CCA1-017: Fine petroglyph of a fully pecked, long-beaked bird, depicted in profile, with two legs ending in three digits. Short pecked groove. Van Hoek 2012: 238.
CCA1-018: Outlined cross-shaped petroglyph of a design that may be related to the Venus-Cross Family. Pecked lines forming one or two possible biomorphic figures (Lizards or anthropomorphs?) Van Hoek 2012: 233.
CCA1-019: Anthropomorphic figure (or a lizard) with a cupule for a head and a cupule at the genital area. Remaining three limbs ending in three digits. Possible head (much damaged) with two large cupules for eyes. Fully pecked small bird with long beak and outspread wings (?). Abstract pattern of (parallel) grooves. Ringmark(s?). Van Hoek 2012: 232.
CCA1-020: Very complex pattern (23 cm in height) of curving, parallel grooves, with several lines attached ending at the top in a human head with two dots for eyes and a simple downturned mouth. From the head emanate three groups of grooves. This is the only candidate to possibly represent an MSC-Style (Formative Period) petroglyph at this site (more examples at Cerro Mulato; see Van Hoek 2011 for a comprehensive study of MSC-Style rock art images). Van Hoek 2012: 233.
CCA1-021: Simple bent pecked line on a panel immediately to the right of CCA1-020. Not in my 2012-book.
CCA1-022: Fully pecked quadruped. Van Hoek 2012: 233.
CCA1-023: Match-stick (male?) anthropomorphic figure, with circular (empty) head. Small pattern of (parallel) grooves. Van Hoek 2012: 240.
CCA1-024: In the central part is a pattern of grooves, possibly biomorphic and two parallel rows of altogether nine dots. At the extreme right end are two possible biomorphic figures, one with a leg ending in three digits (a bird); the other having a fully pecked circular “body”(also a bird?). At the extreme left end are several extremely faint (incised?) apparently randomly arranged lines (one set possibly forming a square (a head?). Van Hoek 2012: 240.
CCA1-025: Damaged pattern comprising two simple spirals, each attached to a head-elements (one circular; one – damaged – square), both with two eyes and a mouth. A small, rather crudely pecked ring-mark and a squarish figure (a possible spiral?). Van Hoek 2012: 241.
CCA1-026: Two curving lines (one looking like a bird’s leg) and two parallel rows of altogether 14 small cupules. Van Hoek 2012: 241.
CCA1-027: Pattern of grooves; single groove. Van Hoek 2012: 241.
CCA1-028: Anthropomorph (?) with outlined oval head, bisected by a vertical line with a dot in each part (eyes). Joined to a (broken-off?) zoomorph. One cupule. Van Hoek 2012: 241.
CCA1-029: Fully pecked biomorph (lizard or [male?] anthropomorph. Van Hoek 2012: 242.
CCA1-030: Small pattern of curved grooves enclosing two cupules. Van Hoek 2012: 242.
CCA1-031: Single groove. Van Hoek 2012: 242.
CCA1-032: Crudely pecked, simple spiral. Van Hoek 2012: 231.
CCA1-033: Small pattern of two angular spirals. Van Hoek 2012: 239.
CCA1-034: Confusing group of grooves forming a biomorph (?) attached to a “trident”. Van Hoek 2012: 239.
CCA1-035: Possible (irregular) head-motif enclosing at least three (perhaps four) anthropic markings (unfinished facials?). Van Hoek 2012: 242.
CCA1-036: Two patterns of curved grooves (one with a spiral; the other more circular with three short grooves attached and an internal curved groove). Van Hoek 2012: 243 – 244.
CCA1-037: Three or four pecked (curving) grooves. Van Hoek 2012: 243.
CCA1-038: Four linear grooves. Van Hoek 2012: 243.
CCA1-039: Simple pattern of curved grooves. Van Hoek 2012: 246.
CCA1-040: Crudely pecked grooves (unfinished biomorph?). Van Hoek 2012: 246.
CCA1-041: Oval head (unfinished?) with eyes and mouth, and an oval with central cupule. Pecked groove. Van Hoek 2012: 246.
CCA1-042: Oval with internal cupule and a broad but short groove attached (broken-off?). Van Hoek 2012: 246.
CCA1-043: Three patterns. Two of them involving a cross with a circle attached, while the horizontal arms seem to have digits. Van Hoek 2012: 247.
CCA1-044: Biomorphic or abstract pattern, looking like a butterfly (its “wings” probably spirals). Areas of pecking and one short curved groove. Van Hoek 2012: 247.
CCA1-045: Pecked pattern, possibly a biomorph. Faint “cross” pattern. Van Hoek 2012: 247.
CCA1-046: Oval spiral-like pattern. Groove. Cupule. Van Hoek 2012: 248.
CCA1-047: Ring-mark and nearby short grooves. Van Hoek 2012: 248.
CCA1-048: Straight pecked grooves. Van Hoek 2012: 248.
CCA1-049: Panel A: S-shaped spiral; possible snake; complex pattern of mainly curved grooves enclosing one cupule. Panel B: Complex abstract pattern of mainly short and straight grooves. Van Hoek 2012: 249 – 250.
CCA1-050: Two concentric ovals (broken-off or intentionally drawn like this). Van Hoek 2012: 248.
CCA1-051: Two rather angular double-spirals and other grooves. Two rather small circles with an internal dot. Van Hoek 2012: 250.
CCA1-052: Very crudely manufactured pattern, including partial circle with a central cupule. Van Hoek 2012: 250.
CCA1-053: U-shaped groove. Possibly more (very faint) grooves. Not in my 2012-book.
CCA1-054: Faint circles and possibly one or some more cupules; all rather doubtful and possibly natural. Not in my 2012-book.
CCA1-055: Three randomly arranged pecked grooves. Two possible cupules. More very faintly pecked lines. Not in my 2012-book.
CCA1-056: Oval shaped groove with internal cupule. Not in my 2012-book.
CCA1-057: Crudely pecked but very faint lines. Van Hoek 2012: 233.
CCA1-058: Pattern of several curved and connected pecked grooves (one ending in a circle) on a much fragmented panel. Not in my 2012-book.
CCA1-059: Complex pattern of deeply engraved curved grooves.
CCA1-060: based on a photo kindly shared with me by Ignacio Alva: Set of zigzagging parallel grooves; four more grooves an one biomorph (a lizard with a “fat belly”; all pecked (see my paper on the nearby rock art site of Cerro Mal Paso (Van Hoek 2024).
CCA1-061: Panel with at least 33 rather small cupules (all pecked) and one pecked groove.
CCA1-062: At the left-hand edge is a pattern of pecked grooves (a biomorph?).
CCA1-063: One curving, pecked groove.
CCA1-064: One small pecked ring-mark.
CCA1-065: Group of at least nine pecked cupules (some “broken off” at the panel’s edge), and a pattern of thick curved grooves, all pecked.
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The Cupules of Cerro La Cal
It is a fact that in many cases – worldwide – there are circular depressions in a rock panel that are very hard to classify as authentic cupules. They may be natural depressions, or (only occasionally) natural depressions that have been worked on. Especially much weathered and deeply patinated natural depressions are hard to distinguish from anthropic cupules on the same panel. It is also tricky to interpret markings from a photograph or an undifferentiated B&W drawing (like the drawings by Núñez Jiménez [1986]). Especially photos taken without slanting light are deceiving. Those photos do not show depth. I therefore think that Jean Guffroy made an error when he wrote – probably based on the photos he had of the site – that the rock art site of Cerro Mulato has “numerous cupules” and “lines of cupules” (2009: 82).
We have visited Cerro Mulato several times at different times of the day and year, surveyed more than 450 decorated boulders and yet I cannot remember to have ever seen a true authentic cupule at Cerro Mulato. All the circular features that Guffroy refers to (for instance 2009: 92 and 95) are in fact very superficially pecked, rather small circular markings (which – in some cases – may have had the same ritual function as true cupules, though). But they definitely are not authentic cupules, lacking the depth of a true cupule. The reason for this superficiality is the hardness of the boulders at Cerro Mulato, which all are rocks of a type of very hard andesite (a sort of fine-grained granite), which dominates the Reque-Chancay Basin. Therefore, cupules are relatively scarce at rock art sites in the Reque-Chancay Basin, while superficially manufactured images (and dots!) predominate. Yet, a few sites form exceptions.
Indeed, it is a fact that the rock art site of Cerro La Cal (CCA1) has a number of unambiguously anthropic cupules. Cupules and other petroglyphs are much easier to execute at Cerro La Call, because it is an area of thick deposits of limestone, which are much softer than andesite and thus more easily to work with. Therefore, cupules at CCA1 are often more deeply executed and grooves are often much deeper than “grooves” at – for instance – Cerro Mulato. However, also at Cerro La Cal it is often hard to distinguish anthropic cupules from natural depressions. I already mentioned the depression on Panel CCA1-014, which is classified by Jean Guffroy (2009: Fig. 91) as a cupule (2009: 66). In my opinion however, it is more likely that the depression is a natural feature.
I now would like to briefly yet tentatively discuss the (possible) instances of cupules at site CCA1. The first instance concerns Panel CCA1-009 at the south edge of the hilltop. It has three (or four?) rather small cupules and one doubtful depression (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Panel CCA1-009 at Cerro La Cal. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.
Only a few meters further to the ESE is Panel CCA1-019A, which has the best display of anthropic cupules of the site (Figure 4). The stark shadows reveal the depth of many cupules.
Figure 4. The larger part of Panel CCA1-010A at Cerro La Cal. Photograph and drawing © by Maarten van Hoek, my drawing based on the slightly incomplete drawing (cupule #5 is missing) of Alva and Ventura (2004: Fig. 13a).
Panel CCA1-010A has two types of cupules. The first type (the type we are actually discussing in this study) concerns cupules that are “not part” of an (abstract) design or of a biomorphic image. Therefore only cupules #1 to #5 and the two doubtful cupules (“?” in Figure 4) are truly authentic cupules.
The second type of cupules involve those anthropic depressions that are part of an (abstract) design, or of a biomorphic figure (features #6 to #9). For instance, features #7 to #9 could well have been intended to represent eyes, disregarding the possibility that true cupules were later incorporated into a – for instance – biomorphic figure, like a head. However, this study would like to only discuss unrelated cupules. Not admitted are the (enclosed or dubious”?”) cupules on Panels CCA1-014, 015, 019, 041, 042, 049, 052, 054(?), 055(?) and 056.
Besides the two panels discussed above, only six other panels bear one or more cupules. Panel CCA1-025 has two parallel rows of small cupules, while nearby Panel CCA1-028 has one small cupule. Also Panel CCA1-046 has one (slightly larger) cupule. Panel CCA1-061 has a large group of rather small cupules randomly distributed across the panel (Figure 5A), while nearby Panel CCA1-065 has a group of at least nine rather large cupules (Figure 5B), more or less forming a triangle, reminding me of similar yet non-cupule arrangements (often enclosed by a triangular line) at Cerro Mulato (for instance Van Hoek 2012: 49, 51 54, 114 and 156) and Huaca Blanca (Van Hoek 2021a: 9-10), and – further south – at Quebrada del Felino (Van Hoek 2017: Fig. 14) and Tolón (Van Hoek 2017: Fig. 15), both in the Jequetepeque Drainage.
Figure 5. A: Panel CCA1-061 and B: Panel CCA1-065, both at Cerro La Cal. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.
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Cupules Beyond CCA1
There are many rock art sites in the Reque-Chancay Basin, the three most important being Cerro Mulato (Van Hoek 2012), Huaca Blanca (Van Hoek 2021a) and Cerro La Cal. Yet there are only few sites – due to the mainly hard andesite – with authentic cupules, the only site of those three with authentic cupules being Cerro La Cal 1. The anthropic depressions recorded (and called “pocitos”) by Alva and Ventura (2004) at Sites CCA-2 to 4, are not considered by me to represent cupules, but ritual (?) holes used for grinding stuff.
In this drainage there is only one other site where authentic cupules have been recorded. This site – called Desaguadero (Van Hoek 2012: 255 – 258) – was first discovered and reported in 2001 by the energetic local archaeologist Mr. Francisco Diaz Núñez. It concerns an enormous limestone slab at the foot of a hillock (Figure 6: green circle) that is entirely covered with mainly undulating lines and some biomorphic figures and – according to Ignacio Alva (Pers. Comm. 2012) – up to 22 large and small cupules, most of them enclosed by grooves, others superimposed upon grooves (Figure 6: detail).
Figure 6. The rock art site of Desaguadero (green circle: limestone Boulder DES-001; orange circle: andesite Boulder DES-003, which was first recorded by us, has only very faint petroglyphs (Van Hoek 2012: 257). Detail of DES-001. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.
Jean Guffroy (2009: 66) mentions the existence of (small) cupules “at Cerro Ventarán [possibly the same as Cerro Ventarrón]; Cerro Reque and Cerro Pátapo”, but I have never seen any record of those purported cupules. Yet, there is one other boulder in the Reque-Chancay Basin that may bear cupules. It was first recorded by us in 2011. The boulder is located on the north slope of Cerro Saltur and features a large number of mainly small depressions that are all heavily patinated (Van Hoek 2012: 271 – 273). Some (or all) may be true cupules (Figure 7).
Figure 7. Boulder with cupules (?) at Cerro Saltur. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.
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Beyond the Reque-Chancay Basin
This section only briefly lists a selection of sites with cupules in the rest of the Desert Andes. This list will no doubt be incomplete, but it will give an impression of the relatively scarcity and the irregular distribution of cupules in the Desert Andes.
The list starts with the archaeological site of Batán Grande in the Leche Valley (a drainage immediately north of Reque-Chancay), where – at Lucia-Cholope – Shimada et al. (1982: 184) recorded a boulder (Figure 8) of about 1.5 m in length, bearing numerous cupules (after Hostnig 2003: 221; who did not include Shimada’s work in the references), as well as a boulder with petroglyphs and three possible cupules. Further north, at Pomapara (site possibly also known as Cruz de Palmo) in the Olmos Drainage (the northern end of the Desert Andes), an enormous boulder has numerous petroglyphs and also two long, horizontally arranged cupules of rather small sizes and some randomly distributed cupules. Only a short distance to the SW is the rock art site of Los Boliches where a pyramid-shaped boulder (BOL-011) has two deep cupules (looking like eyes) and a long row of dots leading to the top of the boulder (Van Hoek 2020: Cover photo; 68). Boulder BOL-009 may have some true cupules (Van Hoek 2020: Fig. 31).
Figure 8. Boulder with cupules at Lucia-Cholope, Leche Drainage. Photograph by Shimada et al. (1982: 184) – in: Hostnig 2003: 221.
South of the Reque-Chancay Drainage are many valleys with altogether numerous rock art sites. However, only a selection of sites will be briefly discussed and mainly when they have rock panels with unrelated (not enclosed) cupules. To start with, at the extensive petroglyph site of Los Morteros in the Zaña Drainage are also several panels with very large depressions, as well as several (possible?) cupules.
In the Jequetepeque Drainage is the important rock art site of Yonán, featuring a large boulder (YON-006) with a number of large and deep (natural or anthropic?) depressions (the internal walls of some of which bear biomorphic petroglyphs) as well as a number of cupules. Some other boulders may have one or a few cupules (like YON-004 and 069). At Tolón in Jequetepeque is Boulder TOL-016 with a row of – not very deep – cupules.
In the Chicama Drainage I only know of three panels bearing cupules, all three found at the Chuquillanqui Complex, far inland. The first panel concerns Boulder CH-DIABLO-056 at Cerro el Diablo. It has a triangle of six cupules. Panel CH-ALG-2-028 (Van Hoek 2021b: Fig. 15) has a group of at least nine cupules (two attached to a groove), while there are some more isolated cupules on this panel and on other panels. On Boulder CH-ALG-2-015 is a group of 15 small cupules (nine of which are visible in my drawing Van Hoek 2021b: Fig. 16).
Further south, in the Moche Drainage is the rock art site of Menocucho, where Panel Men-P6a has a group of at least 35 cupules (Ventura and Quiros 2007: Fig. 5j [not Fig. 3j]). In the adjacent Virú Drainage we were the first to record the rock art site of Tomabal, where one large slab of stone (TOMC-001) bears numerous (shallow) cupules. At the rock art site of Mayasgo we recorded a large boulder (MYG-1-C-001) that is almost completely covered with cupules of different sizes and depth (some possibly natural). Further south – in the Chao Drainage – is at least one boulder at Santa Rita (SRB-071) with a large ring of cupules that is enclosing some randomly arranged cupules, all rather small.
At the almost completely destroyed Temple of Huaricanga in the Fortaleza Drainage Núñez Jiménez (1986: 597 – 606) reported at least two boulders (one now lost [stolen?]) with cupules (together with other petroglyphs?). At Lumbra in the Chancay Drainage (not the same as the Reque-Chancay Drainage further north) a boulder is completely covered with cupules (Echevarría López 2015: Fig. 113). At the same site is at least one large slab of stone with numerous (mainly small and shallow) cupules (similar to those at Tomabal).
Further south, in the Chillón Drainage, is the extensive rock art site of Checta, where two very large slabs of stone are almost completely covered with (mainly small) cupules (and some petroglyphs, including a possible fish). Other boulders at Checta may also have authentic cupules (like Boulder CHE-086). At nearby Quives are two boulders with (shallow) cupules. At home I have a photo (made by Jean Guffroy?) of a boulder recorded “somewhere in the Chillón Drainage” that is covered with cupules.
At Sisicaya in the Lurín Drainage there is at least one boulder with cupules (Alvina Loli: 2019: Figs 8 and 11). Also at nearby Antapucro Echevarría López reports one boulder with some cupules (2015: Fig. 124). However, Alvina Loli recorded six boulders with (possible) cupules at that site (2019: Figs 20, 21, 22 and 35). Numerous stones with cupules have been recorded at the site of Quebrada Verde and at the archaeological site of Huaycán de Cieneguilla, both further downstream in the Lurín Valley (Echevarría López 2015: Figs 103 and 105). Finally, at least one boulder with two parallel rows of cupules has been recorded at or near the temple of Pachacamac, at a spot where the Río Lurín meets the Pacific Ocean (Echevarría López 2015: Fig. 104). In his thesis Echevarría López mentions more sites with (possible?) cupule rocks.
Skipping the Cañete and Mala Drainages and travelling southwards, we arrive at the San Juan Valley, where – 30 km east of the town of Chincha – is the rock art site of Huancor. This important site has several panels bearing cupules (often combined with other petroglyphs, like Boulder HCR-S48). Especially the cupules on the side panels and the upper surface of a large squarish outcrop that forms the centre of the site (HCR-S-33; used as an altar?) are obvious. Also some abstract patterns and biomorphic images are filled with (often small) cupules.
Travelling further south (skipping several valleys with rock art) the Nasca Valley is reached (which is part of the Río Grande Drainage), where at least two boulders have cupules. One cupule boulder is found at Site X16 (Boulder 2), the other at Site X20 (Nieves 2010: Figs 36 – 37). There may be more cupule panels in this area. But it is remarkable that isolated, authentic cupules have not been seen by us at any of the nine rock art sites of the Palpa Valley (also part of the Río Grande Drainage). Only at the rock art site of La Cabañita in Palpa are two boulders (CAB-001 and 008) that have rows of cupules. These straight rows all seem to emerge from the heads of anthropomorphic figures, and thus they could well be part of the design.
In the Acarí Drainage (forming more or less the southern boundary of the Páracas-Nasca influence sphere) at least two boulders with cupules have been recorded at the Lungumari-Puntilla site (Ritter 1994: 65).
Crossing the Acarí Valley we now enter the Majes Rock Art Style (MRAS) sphere with numerous rock art sites in six major drainages. Yet, although there are uncountable cupules in this area (almost always associated with and/or enclosed by other [mainly biomorphic] images), rock panels with only cupules are relatively rare in this area.
At Ananta in the Caravelí Drainage is an outcrop panel that is almost entirely covered with petroglyphs (including several feet images). There are some lines of small anthropic depressions and at least one line of five small cupules. Further downstream, at Cuculí, is a panel with some grooves and isolated cupules. The most southerly rock art site in this drainage is Río Caravelí South, where at least two boulders have cupules. On Panel RCS-3-024 is a much weathered collection of petroglyphs (including a large circular motif and some camelids) that seems to have been superimposed by three vertical lines of roughly executed cupules. On Panel RCS-3-031C are two horizontal, closely arranged, parallel rows of altogether 16 roughly executed cupules, possibly superimposed upon an earlier anthropomorphic (?) figure.
Further east are the Ocoña Drainage (with the enormous rock art complex of Chillihuay, including San Juan de Chorunga) and – still further east – the Manga Drainage (with the large complex of Illomas) where so far no convincing (un-related) cupules have been recorded (although several cupules have been incorporated into abstract and biomorphic images).
We now enter the defining centre of the MRAS, the Majes Valley, where numerous amounts of cupules have been recorded, yet almost all found associated with abstracts or biomorphs. Only an extremely limited number of isolated cupules are found on boulders with hardly any or no other petroglyphs and – so far – these instances are only found on four (+?; there may be more) boulders at Toro Muerto (of the roughly grand total of 2600 decorated boulders), and Alto de Pitis.
At Toro Muerto it concerns Boulder TM-Da-076 (with at least eleven cupules, Figure 9A); Boulder TM-Dx-076 (with at least five cupules, Figure 9B); Boulder TM-Dx-035 (with two rows of altogether 14 small cupules) and Boulder TM-Dx-076 (with rows of – altogether 19 – small cupules and three larger ones). Again, there may be more examples, as I have not inspected every boulder at Toro Muerto.
Figure 9. A: Boulder TM-Da-076; B: TM-Dx-076; both at Toro Muerto. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.
On the opposite side of the Majes Valley is Alto de Pitis, again with many cupules associated with abstracts and biomorphs. Some boulders have possible un-related cupules (like Boulders AP2-020B, AP2-015 and AP3-191) and only two boulders have unambiguously un-related cupules, both together with other petroglyphs. It concerns Boulders AP2-061 (Figure 10) and AP3-125.
Figure 10. Boulder AP2-061 at Alto de Pitis. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.
Further east is the Sihuas Valley with several rock art sites, including the enormous site of Quilcapampa. Again, several petroglyphs have cupules, but I do not know of any panel having un-related cupules anywhere in Sihuas. However, in his book Jean Guffroy illustrates a boulder (2009: Fig. 549) that – according to Guffroy – has a number of cupules (2009: 254).
The eastern limit of the MRAS Sphere is formed by the Vítor-Chili Drainage, along the banks of which are again many rock art sites. Yet only one site has cupule-only boulders. At the extensive rock art site of La Caldera – located a short distance south of the Río Vítor-Chile, archaeologist Adán Umire Álvarez listed five rock art sites along the Camino Real, which he labelled La Caldera #1 to #5. His sites La Caldera #1 and #2 comprise boulders with only cupules. Site #1 has two boulders (Umire Álvarez 2015: Fig. 6 ) and Site #2 has five boulders (Umire Álvarez 2015: Fig. 7, unfortunately showing the wrong photo and not the cupule rocks).
Leaving the MRAS Sphere, we now enter the area with red hills and white volcanic ashes. Also in this area (called Cerro Verde) rock art has been recorded, including at least four rocks with large and smaller depressions, the smaller examples unambiguously representing cupules. At rock art sites in the adjacent Yarabamba Valley we could not trace rocks with cupules.
In the Locumba Drainage – further SE from the Arequipa area – is the extensive rock art site of San Antonio where – in 2005 – Rainer Hostnig recorded many boulders with petroglyphs, including one boulder (SAL-002) with numerous cupules (Figure 11), and at least three boulders with somewhat doubtful cupules (SAL-037, 039 and 074). German explorer Hans Dietrich Disselhoff illustrates part of a panel of a boulder located at Tumbaya in the Locumba Valley, which has a number of “dots” (most of which arranged in one long, horizontal row) that may all be true cupules (or superficial dots) (1968: 74).
Figure 11. Boulder SAL-002 at San Antonio, Locumba. Photographs © by Rainer Hostnig.
Along the Pacific Coast, just west of the town of Ite and just north of the mouth of the Río Locumba, is the rock art complex of Punta Picata with at least two rocks with (rows) of cupules (Umire Álvarez 2012: Figs 4 and 5) and – possibly at the same location – one other boulder with cupules (unknown source). Just north of the town and on both banks of the Río Locumba is the rock art complex of Ite, where at least one large boulder almost entirely covered with small cupules has been recorded (Umire Álvarez 2012: Fig. 13).
Further SE is the site of Quebrada de Burros (uncertain location; possibly in the Sama Drainage), where Gustavo Herrera recorded at least one boulder with numerous cupules (source no longer traceable on the internet). At the important rock art site of Miculla (further SE; in the Caplina Drainage), an extensive site with hundreds of boulders bearing petroglyphs, yet no boulder with (un-related) unambiguous cupules has been recorded (so far).
Crossing the (rock-art-wise) irrelevant border with Chile, the Lluta Drainage is reached (also known as Yuta), in which the extensive rock art site of Rosario stands out for having an almost unique collection of (mainly) petroglyphs, some pictographs and petroglyphs that have been painted-in. Interestingly, many panels feature large and small depressions. Some depressions may be anthropic, others (especially the larger ones) may be natural (Figure 12), but without expert scanning it is hard to tell the difference. Much further upstream are several sites with boulders often bearing many cupules. It concerns at least one boulder at the site of Molinos (surrounding a very large [anthropic?] bowl-shaped depression), boulders at Millune and Vinto (often combined with grooves) and one at Arancha (together with other petroglyphs). For more details about the Lluta Valley consult the extensive thesis by Daniela Valenzuela (2013).
Figure 12. Boulder ROS-024 at Rosario, Chile. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.
Immediately to the south of Yuta is the Azapa Valley, again with several rock art sites. Very near the Pacific coast is the much damaged rock art site of Cerro Chuño with a large boulder (CCH-024) bearing petroglyphs on two vertical panels, on which thirteen and – on the opposite panel – at least nine cupules are randomly distributed across both surfaces.
Further upstream a rock art site was destroyed, and at least one boulder with cupules was saved and brought to the Azapa Museum and is now on display in the garden. It is almost completely covered with cupules, although one side features a motif that possibly represents a vulva (Figure 13).
Further upstream are many more rock art sites, among which is Chamarcusia. At this site is a boulder with possibly up to 29 cupules (often in rows) together with two circular motifs, one simple, fully pecked anthropomorph and one quadruped superimposed by a cupule. At Chamarcusiña (the same site?) is a boulder with petroglyphs and some un-related cupules. At the site of Las Peñas is a boulder with a combination of grooves and (often un-related) cupules.
Figure 13. Boulder at the Azapa Museum, Chile. Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.
Again further south is the Codpa Drainage with two major rock art complexes. At the remote site of Calaunsa is at least one large smooth boulder featuring some 12 cupules of differing sizes and depth (and some extremely faint petroglyphs). Much further upstream is the enormous rock art complex at Ofragía (with several separate sites on both banks of the river), where – on Panel OFR-024 – we counted at least ten cupules (eight in a straight row), not mentioned by the official Ofragía Inventory (CIHDE 2012) at the entry of “their” Panel Ofa-1_B6_P7. However, the Ofragía Inventory lists (and illustrates) a large number of panels with all sorts of (anthropic and/or natural[?]) depressions (all called “horadaciones” by the Inventory), including true cupules, yet also many oval-shaped grinding holes (that are sometimes combined with cupules), and boulders with only true cupules, while yet again others are combined with petroglyphs. For instance, one small boulder at this complex (Panel CoBl-2_B66_P6 according to the Ofragía Inventory) has rows of small cupules, while another boulder (Panel CoBl-2_B38_P14 according to the Ofragía Inventory) has two large cupules and at least 13 smaller cupules, combined with bird-footprints.
The next drainage is the large, bifurcated Camarones Drainage, with – again – numerous rock art sites along its banks. Yet I know of only sites along the Suca tributary, where archaeologist Rolanda Ajata López recorded several boulders with cupules, for instance on Boulders SUC-094, 150, 152 and 172, all with rows of rather small cupules.
Skipping several drainages (including the valleys housing the extensive rock art sites of Ariquilda and Tarapacá) we arrive at the Huatacondo Drainage, where – again – several rock art sites are found on the banks of the valley. One site – Tamentica – in fact blocks the river, which caused the granite outcrop and boulders to be worn very smooth. One panel at the east edge of the site (Bloque 25, Panel G) has a linear group of at least 29+ cupules, some almost worn off, others most distinct. It is very difficult to make a clear photo of the (naturally polished) panel (Figure 14; note the fully pecked petroglyph of a quadruped [there are more biomorphic images on this Bloque]).
Figure 14. Bloque 25, Panel G at Tamentica, Chile. Photograph © by Maarten van Hoek.
Much further south and deeper inland is the Río Loa Drainage with many important rock art sites on its banks. One of these sites is found in the Quinchamale Gorge of the Santa Barbara group, where at least two adjacent stone slabs have large and deep depressions, both on rather steeply sloping surfaces (they may have been dislocated by flash-floods). They may be large cupules or grinding holes (Figure 14B). Another boulder in this gorge (with an impressive view of the nearby active volcano of San Pedro) has five depressions (Figure 14A) that may all be cupules (although it is not impossible that they are grinding holes).
Figure 15. Two boulders in the Quinchamale Gorge. A: Boulder showing possible cupules; B: The two slabs with deep depressions (my wife Elles in Figure B1 indicates the scale). Photographs © by Maarten van Hoek.
Further south of Santa Barbara are several more rock art sites. However, I do not know of any more rocks with unambiguous (un-related) cupules south of the Río Loa Drainage until the southern limit of the Desert Andes is reached at the village of Peine (at the south end of the Salar de Atacama), and where – further south still – rock art regions of other cultures emerge.
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Conclusions
This study demonstrates that the distinction between true cupules and natural cupule-like depressions is often (very) problematic (see Figure 11). In this respect, unlike Robert Bednarik, I am not an expert regarding cupules. Especially when cupule-looking depressions are found together with anthropic grinding depressions, it is most challenging to decide whether they are truly intended to represent cupules (and not – for instance – as the start of a new grinding hole).
Another mistake that is easily made, is to judge from photos or drawings that a panel has cupules, while – when scanned in the field – in many cases the circular motifs prove to be too shallowly executed to be admitted as true cupules. An example concerns Jean Guffroy when he refers to for instance purported “cupules” at Cerro Mulato that do not exist (1999: Fig. 54a; 2009: 82; Fig. 158). Therefore I myself do not want to claim either that all the cupules presented in this study represent authentic, anthropic cupules.
Yet there are some conclusions to be made. It is evident that cupules are most unevenly distributed across the Desert Andes. There are major rock art sites that have not a single example of a true cupule, like Cerro Mulato in the north of Peru, and very small sites that have one boulder completely covered with cupules, like the boulder at the site of Lucia-Cholope, also in the north of Peru (see Figure 8).
The same goes for the major drainages in the Desert Andes. There are several drainages that (as far as I know) do not have any un-related cupule, like the rock art complexes of Ariquilda in the gorge of the Quebrada de Aroma, and Tarapacá in the valley of the Quebrada de Tarapacá; both in Chile. On the other hand, the valleys of the Río Lluta, the Río Azapa and the Rio Codpa (also in the north of Chile) have an above average number of (possible) cupules (though often together with grinding holes or grooves).
Also unexpected is the situation in the Central Majes Valley of southern Peru. The two major sites of South America, Toro Muerto and Alto de Pitis, have numerous cupules. Yet the great majority is found directly associated with abstract and biomorphic figures (mainly as [decorative or ritual?] infill elements), while boulders with only cupules are extremely rare (see Figure 9).
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Acknowledgements
I am indebted to archaeologist Ignacio Alva Meneses and local archaeologist Mr. Francisco Diaz Núñez for their help regarding Lambayeque rock art. Rainer Hostnig has been so kind to share many photos with me, including those of the site of San Antonio. Renata Bianchi shared with me his photos of Calaunsa. In 2012 Chilean archaeologist Daniela Valenzuela supplied me with copies of the inventories of the rock art site of Ofragía (CIHDE 2012). I am most grateful to Chilean archaeologist Rolando Ajata López who provided me with a report on the rock art of Huatacondo (Tamentica) and many photos of the Suca site in the Camarones Drainage. Last but not least I also thank my wife Elles for her assistance during the surveys of many Andean rock art sites, and for her support at home.
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